Memory
is a complex process, and understanding how memory
works is quite a hot topic in the research of
such processes. It may help us to understand,
though, why certain types of memory are more available
to us than others, particularly in the area of
traumatic memory, and how they can cause such
difficulty (often in seemingly unrelated ways).
What follows here in Part 1 of this article will
be an attempt to explain in as simple terms as
possible a little about what researchers are finding
out about memory processes.
In
order to understand how memory (or the lack of
it) occurs in a survivor of trauma, we must have
at least a basic concept of how trauma affects
the mind and what information the brain is able
to retain or store. Trauma is not merely a psychological
event; it is also a physiological one (and visa
versa). In fact, actual bodily harm (bruising,
broken bones, etc.) does not necessarily have
to occur in order for an event to be traumatic.
Psychological trauma (witnessing a death, violence,
fear for life and limb) exacts a heavy toll on
the body as well as it does on the mind because
the two are intricately interconnected and will,
of course, affect one another. We need to understand,
then, how the brain processes and “remembers”
traumatic events and the consequences of those
memory-storing processes.
In
earlier articles, we have discussed some of the
dynamics of how traumatic stress can be a factor
in, and contribute to, such conditions as DID
and PTSD. Because more and more research is being
done, in the area of PTSD at least, researchers
are becoming more aware of what occurs in this
condition. According to Rothschild (2000), many
of the experts in the field recognize PTSD as
a “complex psychobiological condition.”
How the mind stores traumatic memory is also more
understood than it was in the past. “In
PTSD a traumatic event is not remembered and relegated
to one’s past in the same way as other life
events. Trauma continues to intrude with visual,
auditory, and/or other somatic reality on the
lives of its victims.”
Somatic
memory (“body memories”) will be discussed
in a later article. For now, though, let us think
about the questions how and why this is the case,
at least on a very introductory level. First,
we need to know what memory is. Memory generally
has to do with the way the brain records, stores,
and remembers information. It can be measured
by recall, reproduction, recognition, and relearning
(Chaplin, 1985). In order for information from
our external world to be “memorized,”
it must be encoded (transformed into appropriate
signals so that it can be recorded in the brain).
Not all information is stored and recorded so
that it becomes a memory, but some types of information
are more likely to be recorded or stored in long-term
memory than others. “The greater the significance,
and the higher the emotional charge – both
positive and negative – the more likely
a piece of information (or an event made up of
multiple pieces of information) will be stored”
(Schacter, 1996). When it comes to traumatic memories,
all of this comes into play.
There
are two main systems of memory – long-term
memory and short-term memory. Memory can either
be stored in the brain as explicit (also called
declarative memory) or implicit (procedural memory).
Which type of memory it is determines where it
is stored in the brain and how the memory is retrieved.
“Explicit memory depends on language and
involves facts, descriptions, and operations that
are based on thought,” says Rothschild,
while implicit memory involves “procedures
and internal states that are automatic. It operates
unconsciously, unless made conscious through a
bridging to explicit memory that narrates or makes
sense of the remembered operation, emotion, sensation,
etc.” Many times, only images remain, there
simply are not words to describe or explain or
make sense of the trauma; thus the memory cannot
be stored as an explicit (declarative) one, but
rather as an implicit memory process. Van der
Kolk (1987) tells us that trauma and memory of
trauma interrupts normal developmental processes.
He explains:
“When
habitual and previously adaptive actions and strategies
fail, the autonomic nervous system is activated
and a search through the memory systems of different
domains begins. In children, this search is heavily
weighted toward visual memory…. Numbing,
denial, and constriction of personality functioning
follow traumatization in adults.”
When
you think of how the brain stores information
and what kind of information becomes memory, the
difficulty in retrieving certain types of memory
(especially traumatic memories) makes more sense.
Because traumatic memories are stored differently
than other types of memory, retrieval can be a
huge problem. One reason for this is that traumatic
memories are often stored as implicit rather than
explicit memories, which is why the sense of “not
having words to describe” a trauma is such
a common experience for survivors. It also makes
sense, then, that extremely overwhelming events
would send someone into “defense mode”
in order to cope with the unbearable and find
alternate ways to deal with the memory of those
events. DID is the result of one such coping mechanism.
On the subject of dissociation, for example, Bessel
van der Kolk (1995) says this:
"People
have a range of capacities to deal with overwhelming
experience. Some people, some kids particularly,
are able to disappear into a fantasy world, to
dissociate, to pretend like it isn’t happening,
and are able to go on with their lives. And sometimes
it comes back to haunt them."
This
is most certainly the nature of DID and PTSD.
In our next article, we will look at what physiologically
occurs in the brain and attempt to explain how
somatic or “body memories” result
from trauma.
A
Short Introduction to Memory Processes Part II
Let
us continue our discussion on memory processes.
In Part One of this article, we talked about how
memory processes are affected by trauma and how
that can determine what information the brain
is able to retain or store. We talked about the
autonomic nervous system (the part of the central
nervous system responsible for automatic functions
we don’t usually think about, such as breathing
or the heart beating) and how traumatic memories
can affect those functions. We also talked about
how traumatic memories are stored differently
than other types of memory, as well as the difference
between implicit and explicit memory.
Now
we will look at memory processes from a physiological
perspective. We’ll begin by looking at the
physical brain, beginning with some very basic
terms that will aid us in understanding which
parts of the anatomy are involved in the functions
of memory, learning, and emotion.
The
human brain is an extremely complex organ. For
the sake of this discussion, we will mention only
those areas of the brain that play the greatest
part in the processes and formation of memory.
For a picture view and short glossary of some
of these terms, please see the website at http://www.ahaf.org/alzdis/about/Anatomy...
Our
main focus here will involve the area of the brain
called the Limbic System, which is located deep
within the center of the brain. This “system”
consists of several structures, including the
hippocampus (important in memory formation), the
amygdala (center of major emotional activity),
the thalamus (a “switching station”
through which signals travel to various parts
of the brain), and several other structures. Also
part of the limbic system are those areas that
are directly affected or closely connected to
it, such as the olfactory system (smells can definitely
trigger strong emotions) and the hypothalamus
(center for the regulation of several body systems
including hunger, thirst, respiration, body temperature,
and the regulation of complex emotions such as
anger and fatigue).
The
limbic system controls mood and attitude. Its
functions include setting the emotional tone of
the mind, filtering and deciding the importance
of events, storing highly charged emotional memories,
moderating motivation, controlling appetite and
sleep cycles, and processing the sense of smell.
It is the part of the brain that determines our
mood, is involved in clinical depression, perception
of events, motivation, and how we view things
from an emotional perspective (see website for
BrainPlace.com listed below). According to one
of the leading experts in the field of trauma
and its treatment, Dr. Bessell van der Kolk (1994),
the limbic system plays a major part in traumatic
memory processes. “The limbic system is
thought to be the part of the CNS (central nervous
system) that maintains and guides the emotions
and behavior necessary for self-preservation and
survival of the species, and that is critically
involved in the storage and retrieval of memory.”
When
we have a least a basic concept of these areas
of the brain and their functions we can better
understand how external influences affect them.
It helps us to make sense of why trauma related
memories can trigger such strong physiological
(physical) arousal. Van der Kolk explains that
when a signal travels through the thalamus to
the limbic system, the emotional significance
of that input is determined. “Most of this
occurs outside of conscious awareness, and only
novel, significant or threatening information
is selectively passed on to the neocortex (outer
surface of the brain) for further attention.”
Once meaning is assigned to information, emotional
behavior is guided by the amygdala to the hypothalamus,
hippocampus and other parts of the brain. Obviously,
this has strong implications for behavior, especially
when a trauma survivor is faced with exposure
to “strong reminders of the traumatic past”
(van der Kolk).
When
we are in danger or are under attack, the limbic
system is where fear and rage occur. Fear energizes
the body so we can run (flight), and the rage
response is the signal to prepare the body to
fight in order to protect ourselves or others.
Rothschild (2000) refers to the limbic system
as “survival central.” An apt description.
“It responds to extreme stress/trauma/threat
by setting the HPA axis (the system that responds
to stress) in motion, releasing hormones that
tell the body to prepare for defensive action.”
The autonomic nervous system goes into a state
of heightened arousal that readies the body for
fight or flight, epinephrine (adrenaline) is released
into the brain, respiration and heart rate quicken,
the skin pales, and the body prepares for quick
movement. “When neither fight nor flight
is perceived as possible,” continues Rothschild,
“the limbic system commands the parasympathetic
branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to
cause the body to freeze” (called tonic
immobility).
Why
does the survivor of trauma continue to react
to certain stimuli (triggers)? “The limbic
system continues to command the hypothalamus to
activate the ANS, persisting in preparing the
body for fight/flight/freeze, even though the
actual traumatic event has ended – perhaps
years before.” In PTSD, the brain persists
in calling and recalling the same alert. “Symptoms
can become chronic as objects, sounds, colors,
movements, etc., that might otherwise be insignificant…
become associated with past traumas, causing traumatic
hyperarousal” (Rothschild).
The
good news is that this cycle can be broken,
the symptoms can abate, and healing can
take place. With the help of those who understand
such processes, recovery is possible. In
the meantime, if we can gain at least a
basic understanding of what takes place
within the brain as a result of trauma we
are one step closer to making sense of how
these things relate to those struggling
with PTSD and DID.
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